Character strengths and mindfulness are large components of positive psychology. The utilization of character strengths within rehabilitation settings has taken place for over a decade. Specifically, character strength interventions have been used to increase life satisfaction and well-being in individuals with disabilities, in particular individuals with traumatic brain injury (Andrewes et al., 2014; Hanks et al., 2014), multiple sclerosis (Smedema, 2020; Smedema & Bhattarai, 2021), spinal cord injury (Phillips et al., 2016), and individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities (Niemiec et al., 2017). Mindfulness research in similar populations has also gained momentum over the last decade, with potential benefits for individuals in vocational rehabilitation (VR) settings (Davenport et al., 2017).
With both character strength and mindfulness practice growing evidence-based support, it is no surprise that they have been combined into the Mindfulness-Based Strength Practice (MBSP) intervention. In 2014, Dr. Ryan Niemiec, Education Director of the VIA Institute on Character, developed MBSP, emphasizing salient character strengths in individuals while simultaneously instilling mindfulness-based behaviors to enhance mindful living and satisfaction with life (Ivtzan et al., 2016; Niemiec, 2014). The pilot study, focused on members of the general population from various countries, found preliminary results of benefit. Those that benefitted the most were individuals who wanted to foster an ability to respond appropriately in a variety of contexts (i.e., psychological flexibility), increase self-awareness, and/or use signature strengths more frequently and successfully (Niemiec, 2014).
The goals of strength recognition and awareness align with many of the practices and principles that rehabilitation counselors (RCs) or other professionals who work with individuals with disabilities use to support their independence. RCs often engage with individuals in a vocational setting, working on independence in the workplace. This includes supporting an individual through career exploration, job seeking/interviewing, job attainment, and job maintenance. The following literature review will highlight the use of character strengths and mindfulness in these vocational endeavors. We propose that the combined use of both, via MBSP, can be beneficial to individuals with disabilities throughout the vocational rehabilitation process.
Character Strengths
Character strengths are positive aspects of an individual’s personality. As defined by Peterson and Seligman (2004), there are 24 character strengths, which are clustered into six virtues: wisdom and knowledge (creativity, curiosity, open-mindedness, love of learning, perspective), courage (bravery, persistence, integrity, vitality), humanity (love, kindness, social intelligence), justice (citizenship, fairness, leadership), temperance (forgiveness and mercy, humility and modesty, prudence, self-regulation), and transcendence (appreciation of beauty, gratitude, hope, humor, spirituality). The specific strengths of an individual, or signature strengths, are thought to represent someone’s core identity and authenticity, and inform their daily functioning (Gander et al., 2020; Niemiec, 2014; Peterson & Seligman, 2004).
With few individuals having an awareness of the character strengths they possess, identification is often the first step in many interventions (Linley, 2008). An initial evaluation of character strengths often helps practitioners and clients determine future development and goals. Several studies have identified a connection between character strengths identification and subjective well-being. Gander and colleagues (2020) longitudinally assessed character strengths development and well-being and found that changes in character strengths were related to changes in well-being and overall life satisfaction. When social support was added and assessed, Azañedo and colleagues (2021) found both to be highly correlated with well-being and psychological health. In employment, individual strengths recognition has been found to be correlated with job satisfaction, engagement in work, and better ability to manage work-related stress (Harzer & Ruch, 2012, 2015).
Mindfulness
With origins in Buddhist practices, mindfulness is based on focused attention and monitoring awareness (Davis et al., 2020). As of the 21st century, the field of psychology has created a definition of therapeutic mindfulness, focusing on modern practices with minimal acknowledgment to its deep history. While many definitions of modern mindfulness exist, we use the following for this paper: (a) focusing attention on experiences in the present moment, and (b) adopting an attitude of openness, curiosity, and acceptance (Bishop et al., 2004).
Mindfulness is believed to be a skill that can be refined and strengthened through intentional practice (Kabat-Zinn, 2015). There are several evidence-based mindfulness interventions, including therapist-led meditation practices and mindfulness-specific programs. A study by Allen et al. (2021) systematically reviewed all current mindfulness-based interventions and found eight types of interventions that aim to enhance positive variables: (1) psychotherapist-led practice, (2) mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) for children, (3) mindfulness apps, (4) positive relationships, (5) mindful self-compassion, (6) loving-kindness meditation, (7) MBIs that may act as mindfulness-based positive psychology interventions (MPIs), and (8) MPIs. Effects of mindfulness-based interventions vary widely but show promise in several areas, including improving overall physical health (Creswell, 2017); better attention management and emotional regulation (Creswell, 2017); supporting treatment of various mental health diagnoses (Williams et al., 2008); and incorporation into drug relapse prevention programs (Bowen et al., 2009).
Rehabilitation Use of Character Strengths and Mindfulness
The field of rehabilitation often works from a strength-based perspective, closely tied to character strength interventions. Specific research has examined the connection between character strengths and quality of life in several disability populations. For example, Smedema and Bhattarai (2021) identified several character strengths of significance for those with multiple sclerosis (MS), and Hanks and colleagues (2014) found similar results for individuals who have experienced a traumatic brain injury (TBI). Umucu and colleagues (2021) evaluated character strengths’ significance to those with chronic disabilities within the context of COVID-19 stress, identifying the benefits of strengths in building individuals’ well-being.
The field of rehabilitation also acknowledges the intersectionality of disability with other identities, many of which have exhibited similar relationships between character strength(s) and well-being. Parallel research has found positive associations between character strengths and well-being within LGBTQIA+ populations (Antebi-Gruszka et al., 2021), supported the salience of the character strength of hope for caregivers of individuals with disabilities (García-Castro et al., 2020), identified strengths as a means to support youth in substance use treatment (Pagano et al., 2019), utilized the character strength of humor in elderly populations (Ruch et al., 2010), and supported character strengths in Mexican American college students’ career decisions (Vela et al., 2018). While this is a non-inclusive list of all character strengths research in specific populations, it highlights its broad use, applicability, and benefits.
Similar to character strengths, mindfulness-based interventions have been utilized in numerous populations, including the disability community and people with other marginalized identities in contexts within and outside of vocational work. Within a vocational rehabilitation context, several researchers have utilized mindfulness-based interventions to assist individuals with disabilities in symptom management in the workplace (Davenport et al., 2017), supporting outcome expectations and comfortability in requesting disability accommodations (Vance et al., 2018), and reducing anxiety in job interviews for those with developmental disabilities (Brazeau et al., 2017). Outside of VR, research has examined mindfulness in supporting caregivers of individuals with disabilities (Donnchadha, 2017), investigated mindfulness in improving mental health outcomes in LGBTQIA+ young adults (Finlay-Jones et al., 2021), evaluated cultural adaptations to ensure mindfulness is appropriate for African Americans (Woods-Giscombe & Gaylord, 2014), and looked at how mindfulness supports relapse prevention for racial and ethnic minority women (Witkiewitz et al., 2013). While this research identifies the potential of mindfulness-based interventions for improved well-being in diverse groups, it also points to the limitations of these interventions, including access, cultural relevance, time, and motivation levels.
Fusing Character Strengths and Mindfulness: MBSP
Mindfulness-Based Strength Practice intervention was manualized by Niemiec in 2014 with the purpose of integrating mindfulness and character strengths to allow an individual to gain awareness of their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Niemiec and colleagues (2012) found evidence of the efficacy of mindfulness-based interventions but found challenge in the intervention’s exclusive focus on problematic behavior reduction. The authors argued that increasing focus on what was going well and guiding practices according to strengths in individuals may better support overall well-being. Mindfulness and character strengths are believed to be closely intertwined and naturally enhance each other (Duan & Ho, 2018). As noted by Niemiec and Lissing (2016), “at its best, the practice of mindfulness is strengths, and the practice of strengths is mindful” (p. 7). Hence, integrating these two practices into one intervention package is likely to amplify the positive effects of both individual interventions. MBSP does this through the incorporation of meditation, exercises, discussion, and reflection to enhance life engagement and overall well-being, and create a strong structure of support (Niemiec, 2014).
MBSP is designed with four themes, as described by Niemiec and Lissing (2016). These include: “(1) individuals can improve upon their awareness and strengths, (2) mindfulness awareness and character strengths lead to valued outcomes, (3) mindfulness, in particular, can enhance character strengths, awareness, deployment and balanced uses, and (4) character strengths can support individuals’ practice of meditation and mindful living and assist in the maintenance of mindfulness in the long-run” (Niemiec & Lissing, 2016, p. 3). These themes are integrated into a program lasting eight weeks, each of which includes a specific focus and builds upon previous sessions. The eight sessions and core topic areas are summarized in Table 1.
Professionals interested in becoming certified teachers in MBSP can do so through the VIA Institute of Character (VIA Institute of Character, 2023). The optional certification process involves a few months of teaching and practical experience, providing guidance on how to lead MBSP with groups and individuals. In addition to the formal training, Neimiec (2014) has developed a practical guide to MSBP, which can be customized and utilized by rehabilitation professionals in VR settings. The practical guide comprised of eight modules, including instructions and activities for each module.
Evidence-Based Literature on MBSP
With MBSP’s creation less than 10 years ago, research remains limited; however, what has been done shows promise in its applicability. Niemiec’s (2016) pilot study on MBSP was a small, non-randomized control study conducted within the United States and four other countries. Results found substantial improvements in signature strength use, engagement, and overall flourishing among participants, with unanimously positive feedback (Niemiec, 2014). Since then, additional research studies have been conducted, including Ivtzan and colleagues (2016) examining MBSP’s impact on well-being. Results showed MBSP participants to have increases in scores on all four well-being measures that were used: Satisfaction with Life Scale, Flourishing Scale, Signature Strengths Inventory, and the engagement section of the Positive Psychotherapy Inventory (Ivtzan et al., 2016). Compared to the control group that had no change, the MBSP participants experienced significant differences in pre- and post-intervention measures, resulting in an overall large effect size.
More recent research, including a systematic review of the effectiveness of MBSP, also determined the positive effect of the intervention on sense of well-being, including the aspects of engagement, health and meaning, job performance, and satisfaction (Prasath et al., 2021). Similar findings were reported in Whelan-Berry & Niemiec’s (2021) mixed-methods analysis, where 126 adult participants engaged in the MBSP program. Those who participated experienced increases in aspects of well-being, including positive outcomes in relationships. Researchers attributed this to individuals’ ability to identify and appreciate strengths in others, allowing for positive relationship building.
MBSP has also been preliminarily integrated into education settings for college-age students, demonstrating evidence of increasing well-being and retention. Wingert and colleagues (2022) utilized a control group design, providing a total of 21 first- and second-year college students with the full 8-week MBSP intervention. Compared to the control group, those who completed the full 8-week curriculum had increased health, a stronger sense of meaning in life, and higher levels of retention in college the following semester. With recognition of the numerous barriers and challenges that come with attending post-secondary institutions, the study provided evidence of the support MBSP can provide to students.
Evidence-Based Literature on MBSP in Disability Populations
With its strength-focused approach and positive psychology characteristics, MBSP parallels the field of rehabilitation counseling closely; rehabilitation counselors are “committed to facilitating the personal, economic, and social independence of individuals with disabilities” (Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification, 2023, p. 1), supporting their overall worth, potential, and the uniqueness of each person. Both mindfulness and character strengths have clinical significance for individuals with disabilities. Therefore, implementation of MBSP in rehabilitation settings may be beneficial, effective, and useful. Additionally, while MBSP has been created to be implemented in a group format; it can also be adapted to work with individuals in a one-on-one setting, with couples, and even in an online format, allowing for the flexibility needed when considering its application with various populations (Niemiec, 2014).
Even though there is very limited literature to directly support the effectiveness of MBSP in VR settings, based on promising evidence in other settings, we can extrapolate that integrating MBSP in VR services can enhance the effectiveness of such services. Some research has been done specifically looking at MBSP’s relationship with job satisfaction and performance compared to MBSR (mindfulness-based stress reduction) and a control group. MBSP may be beneficial in work settings, specifically in helping people to manage stressful situations and support the understanding of colleagues’ strengths (Niemiec & Lissing, 2016). Pang and Ruch (2019) worked to assess this theory, comparing interventions for individuals in their employment. The results showed that MBSP had an increased effect on job satisfaction and task performance. While MBSR similarly increased well-being, reduced perceived stress, and increased job satisfaction, MBSP seemed more effective for employee performance. All MBSP effects were seen up to six months after the intervention (Pang & Ruch, 2019). While this research does not focus on individuals with disabilities specifically, it provides evidence of MBSP’s application in vocational settings and its potential with diverse populations.
Implications for Rehabilitation Counseling Practice and Research
The existing literature on character strength interventions, mindfulness-based interventions, and combined MBSP supports the effectiveness of such positive psychology interventions in improving many health and well-being outcomes in a wide range of populations (Ivtzan et al., 2016; Lavy & Littman-Ovadia, 2017; Pang & Ruch, 2019; Prasath et al., 2021; Whelan-Berry & Niemiec, 2021). Even though the feasibility and effectiveness of MBSP have not yet been studied within rehabilitation counseling settings, especially for improving VR outcomes, such interventions can be replicated to improve employment and overall well-being outcomes in people with disabilities. With rehabilitation counselors interacting with clients, often within vocational settings, this intervention appears to have significant implications for future practice. Implications for MBSP are summarized in Table 2 as they relate to state-federal vocational rehabilitation programs throughout the United States (Disability Rights Montana, 2012; Michigan Rehabilitation Service, 2005).
MBSP for Identifying Strengths and Developing Mindfulness
MBSP can be utilized to identify and develop character strengths and mindfulness in people with disabilities. As stated previously, most individuals do not have a strong understanding or awareness of their strengths and abilities (Niemiec, 2014; Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Traditional approaches to VR have often focused on identifying and minimizing persons with disabilities’ limitations or deficits; however, a strength-based approach like MBSP can help rehabilitation counselors identify and explore clients’ positive traits and attributes that can be employed in each step of the VR process (Mills & Kreutzer, 2016). The bi-directional relationship between character strengths and mindfulness suggests that persons with certain strengths are more likely to engage in mindfulness practices and some character strengths can be strengthened by mindfulness training (Pang & Ruch, 2019). In VR settings, identification of character strengths (e.g., curiosity, hope, creativity, gratitude, zest) is also helpful in developing and utilizing strategies to solve return-to-work-related issues and enhance job satisfaction (Pang & Ruch, 2019). Such strength-based interventions incorporating mindfulness are found to be promising in increasing employee engagement, improving productivity, reducing employee turnover, and increasing job satisfaction, consequently improving employees’ well-being (Mills & Kreutzer, 2016; Prasath et al., 2021). Similarly, mindfulness practices provided in MBSP sessions help individuals develop non-judgmental and open awareness of the present moment, which can eventually nourish their relationship with themselves and others (Lavy & Littman-Ovadia, 2017; Niemiec, 2014; Pang & Ruch, 2019), thereby facilitating the VR process.
MBSP for Career Exploration and Interview Preparation
MBSP can be a helpful tool in exploring career opportunities and interests and creating a vocational plan. Being mindful of one’s top signature strengths and availing oneself of those strengths throughout vocational training and job placement can increase job retention and satisfaction (Mills & Kreutzer, 2016). With character strengths linked to job satisfaction, it may be worthwhile to dedicate time to identifying strengths that relate to specific job opportunities. For example, identifying character strengths helps one to see what is best in themselves and can unlock potential career opportunities that match their abilities and strengths (Whelan-Berry & Niemiec, 2021). Furthermore, MBSP intervention topics may be useful for supporting individuals in preparing for job interviews. The job interview is one of the most stress-producing experiences for many interviewees. Bringing awareness of an individual’s strengths and barriers, while also utilizing mindfulness-based interventions to increase awareness of both one’s innermost qualities and negative judgments of self, others, and the situation, may serve them well in high stress job interview environments.
MBSP for Management of Work Responsibilities
Many individuals, regardless of their disability status, find certain work-related situations stressful. Having established MBSP skills when starting a new job may have benefits in one’s ability to handle change, new responsibilities, and expectations. Mindfulness activities in MBSP are likely to decrease employees’ concern about stressors (e.g., work or disability-related stressors) and increase one’s task performance (Pang & Ruch, 2019) and work engagement (Lavy & Littman-Ovadia, 2017). Mindfulness interventions found within the MBSP curriculum (Niemiec, 2014), such as mindful walking, body awareness, and breathing awareness, could be utilized within an individual’s day to reduce work- and disability-related stress or anxiety. Many people with disabilities experience chronic pain, which impacts their ability to work or perform essential job functions. This may result in conflicts with coworkers, customers, and supervisors; anxiety and depression; dissatisfaction; and even layoff. Mindfulness practices are found to enhance control over one’s pain experiences, as mindful individuals are better equipped to manage their pain, identify and implement reasonable accommodations, improve relationships with others, and reduce work-related stress, thus improving work performance (Davenport et al., 2017). Enhancing awareness of strengths such as perseverance, gratitude, hope, self-regulation, and humor may help one fulfill work responsibilities while managing symptoms (e.g., pain, stress). Mindfulness has also been found to contribute to the workability of individuals (Vindholmen et al., 2014) because mindful individuals are more aware of their innermost abilities and the barriers and obstacles that may arise in the workplace (Whelan-Berry & Niemiec, 2021). However, more studies are needed to investigate these mechanisms in persons with disabilities.
MBSP for Enhancing Relationships With Others
Once an individual is established within a job, their interactions and communication patterns with coworkers and colleagues may influence their job performance, satisfaction, and job maintenance. If individuals have an understanding and awareness of their strengths, they may be more likely to identify coworkers’ strengths. This may be salient when dealing with conflicts in the workplace related to communication or individual differences. Utilizing character strengths in communication and using active constructive communication methods have been identified as methods to reduce interpersonal conflict in the workplace and improve happiness, satisfaction with the job, trust, and work success (Mills & Kreutzer, 2016). MBSP intervention has been found to be promising in enhancing positive relationships at both the individual and the family levels (Whelan-Berry & Niemiec, 2021). Many individuals with disabilities experience isolation or self-stigma (Pyszkowska & Stojek, 2022) precluding them from building working relationships with coworkers. Incorporating MBSP practice in the job placement process can enhance employees with disabilities’ ability to understand themselves and other people better, and accept individual differences. This would enhance their ability to maintain positive relationships with their coworkers, customers, and supervisors, leading to higher job performance and satisfaction. Valuing relationships is one of the core themes of MBSP, which has the notion that our relationship with ourselves determines our relationship with others (Niemiec, 2014).
MBSP for Rehabilitation Counselors
Utilizing MBSP interventions and activities may be beneficial for rehabilitation counselors themselves. Mindfulness and character strength interventions have long been used for individuals within counseling and healthcare fields, making MBSP potentially beneficial for rehabilitation counselors as well. MBSP may reduce counselor burnout and stress symptoms and increase well-being (Ivtzan et al., 2016; Whelan-Berry & Niemiec, 2021). If rehabilitation counselors are mindful of their strengths, they will be able to better understand the client’s needs, strengths, and limitations and provide the best services to meet their needs. Given that strength-based interventions foster happiness and well-being, employment, and quality of life, such interventions can be incorporated into our current VR practices to reduce psychological stress, improve well-being, and increase the efficacy of VR services (Mills & Kreutzer, 2016). Because mindfulness helps the use and expression of character strengths and character strengths strengthen mindfulness practices, integrating the two is truly beneficial for rehabilitation counselors and clients to provide the best possible VR services. Self-care is extremely important for rehabilitation counselors, as they tend to have vicarious trauma or burnout (Templeton & Satcher, 2007). Integration and delivery of MBSP to VR services require rehabilitation counselors to learn and practice MBSP strategies on a daily basis while implementing them with clients, which can help the counselors maintain their well-being as well.
Implications for Future Research
As MBSP is a new intervention, additional research is needed to ensure this is an effective and appropriate intervention for individuals with disabilities within VR settings. Most of the research done in various settings thus far has been promising; nonetheless, few studies have focused on using MBSP for individuals with disabilities or specifically in VR settings. Research has similarly been promising within the context of rehabilitation, but additional exploration is needed, particularly for disability populations, to ensure it is feasible and effective. Additionally, the implications mentioned above for RCs are potential areas of research that would help establish MBSP as an evidence-based practice in vocational settings.
In addition to the limited research on MBSP for individuals with disabilities in general, specific limitations exist around evaluating outcomes and the sustainability of results. First, most of the current literature has focused on increasing positive life components, such as self-awareness, confidence, and general well-being. Research has not, however, examined the mitigation of negative life components such as stress, trauma, or other relevant barriers. Examination of mitigation strategies would be beneficial in understanding the complexity and holistic change an individual undergoes from MBSP.
Second, few research studies have examined the sustainability of results from MBSP or other mindfulness-based interventions longer than six months. Some questions to consider include: Does a relapse occur at any point? Are the results sustainable for more extended periods of time, such as a year? And, is a follow-up intervention necessary to ensure results are sustainable? Specific examination of these variables may be beneficial when considering the long-term value and efficacy of MBSP.
Third, some of the character strengths and mindfulness-based interventions have noted their limitations in validity for specific cultural identity groups (e.g., Mexican American college students) and the need for adaptations (Vela et al., 2018; Woods-Giscombe & Gaylord, 2014). Unsurprisingly, MBSP has limited research on its cultural relevance for specific minority populations, including those with disabilities. As it is a new intervention, it will be beneficial to examine its significance in various populations. This will help strengthen its validity and applicability in numerous contexts. The present paper reviewed the applicability of MBSP interventions, along with its definitions, components, and related research; however, more rigorous reviews (e.g., scoping review or systematic review) are recommended to explore its feasibility and effectiveness in rehabilitation settings.
Conclusion
Positive psychology has introduced us to the usefulness and practicality of character strengths and mindfulness for use within several contexts. Research is growing to include these interventions for populations with disabilities. Combining these two key positive psychology concepts through the MBSP model can enhance the positive impact of both intervention areas. Even though there is very limited literature to date to directly support the effectiveness of MBSP in VR settings, based on promising evidence in other settings, it is likely MBSP will similarly be effective for individuals with disabilities within the context of VR. MBSP is a relatively new intervention, having been developed within the last 10 years, resulting in many limitations to its use and generalizability of research. With the growth in positive psychology in general, we predict MBSP to grow as well, particularly in its use within VR services.